ABSTRACTS FOR THE CDROM BASED 46th ANNUAL MEETING ORLANDO, FLORIDA MARCH 3 - 6, 2004

2004 RICHARD IRWIN DISTINGUISHED PAPER AWARD WINNER  

Entrepreneurial Orientation as an Outcome of Social and Economic Conditions: The Case of Germany vs. The U.S.   - Page 1
Darla Domke-Damonte, Andreas Faulstich, William Woodson

Previous research has evaluated some elements of US students’ entrepreneurial orientation (Crant, 1996), while the present research extends and broadens this research to consider different economic and social settings, to include cross-cultural comparisons of students in both Germany (n=95) and the United States (n=147), and to evaluate both self-perceptions of entrepreneurial orientation and perceptions of the average level of entrepreneurial orientation of the country in which the student resides. Results indicate that parental involvement in their own businesses and country of origin affect self-perception of entrepreneurial orientation, but that only country of origin affects perceptions of one’s countrymen’s entrepreneurial orientation.

I. BUSINESS AND PUBLIC POLICY AND STRATEGY

Bridging the Quantitative-Qualitative Gap in Organizational Studies   - Page 11
Rossana C. Alvarez-Diemer, Mark E. Hillon, Joel A. Diemer

Past and current quantitative-qualitative debates in organizational studies in general, and strategic management in particular, impress upon us a substantial rift between the two approaches. Since quantitative approaches continue to be predominant, we might reasonably expect discussions to be limited to inconsequential debates; attacking quantitative and defending qualitative approaches. Whether the attacks are to point at the incommensurability problem, the problems from the outside and from within the dominant framework, or whether they are characterized as a language game, the rift does not appear to be narrowing. Quantitative and qualitative researchers appear not to have the tools or the will to reconcile their methodologies. Dispelling any confusion with other proposals, we put forward the socio-ecological open systems theory framework (OSTE) as a bridging model. Based on the model, we argue that there is no need to question the validity of either approach. The strength of each approach cannot be argued to be better by pointing at the weaknesses of the other. We redirect the focus of discussions to a concern for understanding and intelligent discourse. Our aim is at the creation of a scientific discourse that focuses on people as purposeful and even ideal seeking individuals – beyond self-interest – with a commitment to important human affairs.

The Impact of Psychological Contract Effects on Three Dimensions of Organizational Change  - Page 21
Fernando Fuentes-Henriquez

This paper attempts to analyze the causal relationship between three dimensions of organizational change (i.e. scope, cost and time) and three states of psychological contract (i.e. breach, violation, and reinforcement). Existing work has not brought these literatures together and this paper attempts to bridge this theoretical gap. After reviewing the literature about organization change and psychological contract, a theoretical framework is proposed that links these areas. Several propositions are suggested throughout the paper, and theoretical and practical implications are discussed in the conclusion.

Strategic Performance Measurement Model: Planning, Mapping and Executing the Balanced Scorecard   - Page 39
Laura L. Matherly

A measurement infrastructure that is aligned with a firm’s strategy and objectives from the chief executive officer (CEO) to the operational levels as well as across organization functions and units is required to achieve performance excellence. This paper demonstrates how strategic performance indicators are mapped throughout the organization so that day-to-day measures of all employees will drive improvements in strategic objectives. A strategic balanced scorecard is developed from a company’s vision and areas of strategic focus. Three levels of analysis are examined—strategic, business unit and managing metrics--as strategic measures are developed at business unit and operational levels. Numerous benefits are discussed including the ability to execute a strategy successfully and quickly.

The Role of Managerial Discretion and CEO Attributes in Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance   - Page 47
David A. Fritz, Robert R. Wiggins

In the aftermath of best practices and the mimetic influences of institutionalism there seems to be a rise of interest in the role of innovation and uniqueness as a cause of superior corporate performance. This research offers a framework based on the resource based view (Barney, 1991) and the opportunity based view of the firm found in Stevenson’s (1990) definition of the entrepreneurial construct. The research proposes using Hambrick and Finkelstein’s (1987) construct of managerial discretion to disaggregate and identify the causes of performance variance. The research has value for upper echelon theory as well as innovation based research. There are two components offered. First the managerial discretion and monitoring mechanisms present in the industry are posited to impact firm and CEO performance and rewards. Second, CEO attributes are identified which are posited to contribute to an increase in the managerial discretion characteristics of the firm over time.

An Evolutionary Examination of Organizational Networks     - Page 57
Alix Valenti

As organizations evolve, the networks in which they are embedded are expected to evolve as well. To date, scant attention has been given to this process and what impact it may have to the survival of the organization or to the structure of the network itself. While it is generally agreed that network involvement is critical to organizational performance, only a handful of studies have identified the types of network formations that best benefit an organization. This paper presents a descriptive analysis of networks from an organizational perspective and suggests that an evolutionary process takes place corresponding the development of the organization to its networks ties.

Key Success Factors of Franchising Systems in the Retailing Sector     - Page 70
Ilan Alon

This article examines the key success factors of franchisors in the retailing industry. The study examines the impact of 10 organizational variables on the success of the franchising firm. The significant variables show that the time it takes the firm to franchise is negatively related to its success, while the internationalization, the proportion of franchising, the number of company-owned units and the age of the franchisor are positively related to its level success. Franchisors in the retailing sector can benefit from this study by concentrating on creating the organizational conditions that are supportive for achieving scale and growth in the number of outlets.

Successful First-Movers: Can They Do It Again?     - Page 77
Vera L. Hoover

Firms often gain advantages from being first-movers. Such firms are likely to have the financial and strategic resources that may facilitate success at future first moves. Here, it is also proposed that the moves’ relatedness and the time between moves play a role in determining the likelihood of future first-mover successes.

II. ENTREPRENEURSHIP / SMALL BUSINESS / MANAGEMENT CONSULTING

Exploring the Penetrative Strategy on SME Segments: A Taiwan Survey   - Page 83
Chin-Feng Lin

This study, based on the VALS2 inventory and cluster analysis, identified two groups: managerial people and employees of small and medium enterprises (SME) in Taiwan. These two groups were then divided into 8 subcategories: the Indifferent, the Ordinary, the Attention-Seekers, the Skeptics, the Self-servers, the Thrill-seekers, the Creators, and the Passive. Lifestyle and demographic variables were taken to determine how these characteristics vary within these two groups. The results will provide marketing firms with detailed information relating to the characteristics of each sub-market regarding demography and value/lifestyle preferences to aid the development of effective marketing strategies and enhance their competitive advantage.

Women and Minority Business Owners in the Globalization Era     - Page 93
Eva Dodd-Walker

Given this new era of globalization and the attending issues of national competitiveness and productivity, the role of women and minority business owners (WBOs and MBOs) has increased in importance as their growth rates in the small business sector have surpassed the industry average. This is significant because small business has reemerged as the dominant economic force in the United States (U.S. SBA, 2000). Because of the importance of small business to national competitiveness and the importance of WBOs and MBOs to small business, studies that differentiate WBOs and MBOs from nonminority business owners (NMBOs) are both imperative and timely. Through the development of nine propositions, this study asserts that culture differences between WBOs and MBOs and NMBOs with respect to internationalization rates and alliance formation and survival have implications for their global competitiveness as well as the competitiveness of the nation.

Entrepreneurial Conation across the Turn of the Millennium     - Page 102
Janice A. Black, Gabriel Isaacs, Gerard Farias

It is no surprise that markets are complex systems (Anderson 1999). Their apparent complexity has risen in recent years ((D'Aveni 1994); (Black and Farias 2000)). The cycles of apparent complexity in the market place has been attributed to entrepreneurs taking action (Black and Fabian 2000) (Black and Farias 2000). Indeed being able to take action in the face of uncertainty and ambiguity is a potential entrepreneurial competency (Black and Farias, 2000). Understanding that competence and its influence on the markets can be a necessary competence for today’s managers. This paper presents a model of entrepreneurial action taking, some influences on the market, and then examines the Dot.Com phenomena during the heat of the Dot.Com frenzy for evidence of action taking preferences.

The Effect of Liquidity Stress on the Entrepreneurial Organization in Relation to the Determinants of Strategies   - Page 110
Pamela J. Zelbst

This is a conceptual paper examining the affect of liquidity stress upon the entrepreneur as the primary catalyst for subsequent entrepreneurial shift from deliberate strategy to emergent strategy. The paper further examines four component factors of liquidity stress: sales, cash, production and profit as they relate to the entrepreneur’s shift in both strategy and the strategic decision-making process. The paper also attempts to demonstrate the relationship between the four factors and the movement from deliberate to emergent strategy. Very little research has been pursued in regard to the motivational factors that result in the entrepreneur switching from a deliberate to an emergent strategy, and this paper suggests some possible reasons that could cause this switch as well as suggested areas for future research.

Attitudes Towards Business Ethics: Comparing Respondents From Six Nations   - Page 120
Randi L. Sims

The current study compares the results of the Attitudes Towards Business Ethics Questionnaire (ATBEQ) reported in the literature for samples from Israel, South Africa, Turkey, the United States of America, and Western Australia to a new sample from Jamaica, West Indies (n = 139). The results indicate that while there are some shared views towards business ethics across countries, significant differences do exist between Jamaica and three of the other countries in the study. Although it was hoped that Hofstede’s Theory of International Cultures would aid in understanding the similarities and differences uncovered between the sample countries, it was found that this theory did not adequately explain the results found.

Investment in Africa: A Prospect or a Fad?     - Page 128
Norma Juma

Although Africa has experienced a positive growth in foreign direct investment (FDI) in recent years, it has been relatively less successful in comparison to the other developing regions. The current trend of regional integration is leading to enlarged markets, which are stimulating more FDI especially in manufacturing and financial services sectors. A few African countries have successfully transformed their political and economic environments and thus created a sustainable investment climate. However, the overall expansion of FDI inflow to Africa is still highly concentrated in the hands of a few energy exporters. Statistics on foreign direct investment (FDI) in Africa indicate that United States companies are among the biggest spenders in Africa. This paper attempts to evaluate the economic prospects of investment opportunities in Africa.

Boundaryless Leadership Behaviors: A Cross Cultural Analysis of Leaders, Followers and Job Satisfaction   - Page 141
Gabriel D. Isaacs, William L. Smith, Mark E. Hillon

Boundaryless behaviors, which have become increasingly important at the lower levels of organizations, have helped organizations face numerous challenges by decreasing bureaucracy and increasing communication. Unfortunately, little research has been done focusing on the potential influence cultural factors may have on the leader’s decision to implement boundary behaviors. In addition, there has been little research regarding the potential influence cultural factors may also have on the followers’ perceptions of the boundary behaviors implemented by the leader, which may effect their job satisfaction. Accordingly, we will focus on both inward and outward boundary behaviors on intra-organizational work unit boundaries. Our propositions will examine three boundary behavior categories (boundary buffering, boundary spanning, and boundary definition and maintenance) and the resulting interactions of incorporating the following five cultural dimensions (future orientation, uncertainty avoidance, performance orientation, power distance, and group collectivism). We will thus extend existing research on boundary behaviors as a result of incorporating these interactions and thereby increasing the efficacy of boundary behaviors at an international level.

Vietnam and U.S. Business Cultures: An Initial Investigation   - Page 150
C. Aaron Kelley, Minh Nguyen

This paper is an initial attempt to gather information on the current relevance of two historically significant models developed by Trompenaars and Lewis in describing the cultural differences between Vietnam and the U.S., particularly as they relate to business management activities in Vietnam. Practicing managers were surveyed and interviewed to gain insights into their views of the problems associated with doing business in Vietnam. While some of the anticipated cultural differences were substantiated by the responders, two important ones were not. Limited conclusions were drawn from the current results of the initial survey and new directions for further research are offered.

III. HUMAN RESOURCES / CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Examining the Frequency and Correlates of Workplace Violence: An Exploratory Study   - Page 159
Bella L. Galperin, Joanne D. Leck

Workplace violence is becoming an increasingly important topic for management researchers and practitioners. The literature suggests that a greater number of employees are becoming victims of violence in the workplace. Employees report being targets of extreme forms of violence, such as homicide and physical attacks, to more subtle forms of psychological violence such as gossiping and embarrassment. Despite the growing concern of workplace violence, little is known on the relative frequency of these various forms of violence in the workplace. The first objective of this exploratory study is to examine the frequency of a wide range of violent behaviors, such as aggression and bullying. The second objective is to examine the relationship between the various forms of violence and possible consequences of violence. Finally, future research directions and practical implications are discussed.

Meaningful Work, Employee Retention and Performance: An Expanded Person-Job-Fit Approach   - Page 172
Wesley A. Scroggins

Meaningful work has become an increasingly important job outcome for individuals in recent years. Studies indicate that many employees lack experienced meaningfulness in their work and that organizations have not done a good job at creating meaningful and emotionally satisfying work experiences for employees. One approach to the creation of meaningful work experiences is presented. A person-job fit approach to meaningful work and employee retention is described that consists of matching individual self-concept with job tasks and behaviors. It is proposed that this self-concept-job fit will be strongly related to meaningful work. It is also proposed that meaningful work is related to important outcome variables valued by organizations, such as increased worker performance and employee retention. Implications for future research are discussed.

Do They Value the Same Things? An Empirical Study of Business and Non-Business Majors   - Page 179
Tim O. Peterson, Sonya R. Brewster

Studies have been done to shed light on the values of individuals and how those values affect workplace performance and satisfaction. One area that has been left out of this analysis is the difference between the values of business professionals compared to non-business professionals. We have found that despite the assumption that there are distinct differences between the values for these two groups of individuals, the data collected in this study does not support this assumption.

National Culture and Empowerment: Dimensions of Success   - Page 187
William H. Price, Paul G. Wilhelm

National culture has been shown to predict employee reaction to modern management practices. The degree of freedom allowed employees by their culture should indicate a corresponding level of freedom in the workplace. The primary purpose of the research was to determine if cultural values predict management’s willingness to empower employees. This is an extension of earlier research that shows culture does predict the outcome of certain management practices. The study specifically looked at differences national culture to determine what types would most likely predict success in employee empowerment. An additional variable, staff training, was added to the model to determine its moderating effect. Archival data was gathered on willingness to delegate, staff training levels, and national cultural values. Three models were developed to test the relationship of the variables. The models indicated that cultural values significantly predict management willingness to empower employees. It also shows that the degree of staff training has a greater impact in determining empowerment.

The Labor Relations Course in the Business School Curriculum: A Twenty-Five Year Retrospective   - Page 197
David B. Stephens, Robert D. Stephens, John P. Kohl

This study investigates the status of the labor relations course in the business school curriculum using a longitudinal approach, comparing the results of our earlier (1977) study with the present (2002). The first study revealed the course occupied a position of low status due to the failure of educators to recognize the importance of the process elements of the course, grievance administration and contract negotiations. The study recommended that the labor relations course be required or strongly recommended for all business majors.

Outsourcing Relationships Between Firms and Their Training Providers: The Role of Trust   - Page 211
Thomas W. Gainey, Brian S. Klaas

Firms increasingly use external vendors to provide training for their employees. And because trust has been found to be essential in successful inter-firm relationships, this study identified a number of factors thought to be influential in establishing and maintaining trusting relations with training vendors. Using data obtained from 323 organizations, regression analysis suggests a significant relationship between customer-vendor trust and idiosyncratic training, program uncertainty, contractual specificity, relationship tenure, and communication frequency and accuracy.

Crisis Uncertainty: A Future Context for Crisis Communication in Organizations   - Page 223
Sakile Kai Camara, Tei Street

After the September 11 terrorist attacks, 13 focus groups were conducted utilizing a structured focus group protocol for 53 individuals. Delphic experiences expressed among respondents illustrated a need to reduce uncertainty about the September 11th terrorist attacks by drawing on communication capital by drawing on information connected to past social and historical events, developing causal explanations and patriotism, and expressing fears about security. Additionally, cultural profiling emerged as worldviews of the cultural other shifted in interactions, and the primary sources for reducing uncertainty were forms of media.

Protecting Victims from Sexual Harassment: Using the Expanding Frontiers of Research to Address Old Questions   - Page 261
Karen L. Middleton, Margaret A. Lucero

Despite extensive news coverage of the sexual harassment settlements in publicly traded companies and the continued interest of academicians concerning the causes and effects of sexual harassment in the workplace, questions remain concerning why the rise in sexual harassment has not been stemmed. By highlighting recent research, this review gives straightforward advice to managers on how to identify potential targets, recognize a variety of sexualized and aggressive behaviors, prevent the escalation of such behaviors, and ascertain the important workplace factors that can reduce or enhance the level of sexual harassment in a work group and organization. Based on this knowledge, managers can undertake a more pro-active approach to recognizing the potential for workplace sexual harassment and preventing its development and escalation. Such a pro-active approach by managers can insure that employees will respect the rights of others, producing a more cohesive and supportive workplace environment for all members of the organization.

Personality, Culture and Person-Organization Fit: Assessing the Benefits of HRM in the National Park Service   - Page 274
M. Suzanne Clinton, Janie R. Gregg

Organizations are becoming aware of the benefits of hiring people who fit the organization’s culture instead of hiring because an individual possesses the KSAs necessary to do a job. Culture and its impact on the organization and employee performance must be assessed to determine the personality one should possess to fit the culture and the job. Each step of the HRM process must also be considered, as the goal is not only to hire the right person, but also to develop that person throughout his/her career so that both the employee and the organization benefit from effective Person-Organization Fit. The National Park Service has successfully implemented these practices into its HRM function and thus has high performance from employees and high customer satisfaction.

Assessing Ethical Behavior: Development of a Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale   - Page 285
Robert L Cardy, T. T. Selvarajan

The increasing importance of ethical behavior in organizations indicates the need for performance appraisal systems to explicitly include ethical dimensions of performance. This study developed a six-dimension behavioral scale for assessing ethical judgment using the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) procedure. One hundred and thirty four business undergraduate students participated in developing the scale. The use of this scale for conducting research on the process of making ethical performance judgments is discussed.

Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Power Distance & Uncertainty Avoidance in Relation to Preferred Work Outcomes   - Page 293
Kenneth G. Wheeler

Organizations are dealing with an increasingly diverse work force. Adding to the already diverse population are new employees that continue to arrive from nearly every country in the world. These employees represent a diverse set of cultural values that impact on their preferences for differing work designs and organizational relationships. As a result, organizations are faced with the challenge of finding ways to deal with and maximize the positive gains from such diversity. The present study examines the relation of the culturally related values to preferred work outcomes. The findings indicate that the cultural values of collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance and power distances are related to preferences for Intrinsic, Extrinsic/security, Recognition, Social and Status outcomes. An understanding of these relationships is invaluable to management in effectively motivating workers with differing cultural values.

A Study of Leadership and Cultural Values of White and Hispanic Managers
Josephine Sosa-Fey, Barbara Dastoor

In the United States, awareness of cultural variations, and their effect on leadership styles, has intensified as the diversity of the workforce has increased. In fact, Cox, Lobel and McLeod (1991) expect that by 2050 over forty-five percent of the population in the United States will be comprised of Hispanics, African-Americans, and Asians. This study examines cultural dimensions and perceived transformational leadership factors as they relate to the outcomes of extra effort, perceived leader effectiveness, and satisfaction with the leader.

IV. INNOVATIVE TEACHING / MANAGEMENT EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

A Tool for Overcoming Students’ Limited Business Experience in Class Analysis: The Archetype Assessment Inventory   - Page 309
Marjorie L. Icenogle, Jack A. Tesmer, Bruce W. Eagle, Norman B. Bryan

Many traditional undergraduate students have very limited or no real business experience; therefore, it is impossible for these students to draw upon their own experiences to comprehend the intricacies of the organization’s competitive environment and the range of operational options available to managers. This study assesses the usefulness of the Archetype Assessment instrument (Tesmer, 2002) in facilitating case analyses in the capstone strategic management course at two universities. The findings suggest that the assessment provides specific criteria against which students can assess a company’s competitive environment, as well as the fit between the company’s strategy, structure and environment. When the instrument is completed by individual students and then teams of students, the results suggest that team analysis is more accurate than individual analysis.

Technology and Management Education: Is Half a Loaf Worse Than None?   - Page 315
Joel Rudin

The general consensus among researchers is that student performance does not differ significantly across instructional media, but that on-line education generates less favorable student evaluations. The present study examines student performance and satisfaction in four sections of an MBA course in Organizational Behavior. Two sections were taught face-to-face, one was entirely online, and the fourth section was half face-to-face and half online. The chief advantage of this research design over previous studies is that students had no control over their choice of instructional format. Between-section differences in student performance were insignificant, although the in-class sections had a slightly lower mean final exam score than the other two sections. Between-section differences in student satisfaction, on the other hand, were significant. Unexpectedly, the entirely on-line section garnered much higher student evaluations than the half in-class half on-line section.

Measuring Student Perceptions of Blackboard Using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)   - Page 321
Brett J. L. Landry, James H. Adams, Sandra J. Hartman

Web Enhanced Instruction (WEI) is not intended to replace the traditional classroom setting, but rather to supplement the traditional lecture with course content that can be accessed from campus or the Internet. WEI has the potential to extend the boundaries of traditional classrooms by providing new opportunities for communication and interaction between students and the instructor. While the potential benefits of augmenting the traditional class with WEI have been recognized and discussed, what has remained largely unknown are student reactions to WEI as an addition to the traditional lecture. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has been widely used in the Information Systems research to gather user reactions to information systems. The TAM examines users perceptions of Usage, Usefulness, and Ease of Use. This research applied the TAM to the academic setting to measure student reactions to Blackboard, the WEI tool used in this study. Results suggest that students found that the Blackboard features which are associated with Course Content are used more often and are seen as more useful than those items that provide Course Support and communication. In this study, we consider the issues from the perspective of adult learners and examine college students’ perspectives of Blackboard, an interactive educational tool which is gaining increasing usage throughout higher education. Our concern is to examine whether the students in our study view Blackboard as a useful and effective tool in aiding their learning, and whether their perceptions are related to Blackboard usage.

The Role of Computer Background and Demographics on Student Perceptions of Web Enhanced Instructions   - Page 336
Brett J. L. Landry, James H. Adams, Sandra J. Hartman

It is apparent that technological changes are impacting the way Americans live and work. In this research, we investigate one of the impacts of the information age upon higher education, and examine Blackboard, a Web Enhanced Instruction (WEI) tool. In this research, we consider whether computer background and demographic differences among student users of Blackboard affect their perceptions of how easy it is to use, its usefulness, and their use of the tool. While research conducted in the 1980’s and 1990’s suggested that students with different levels of computer experience and falling into different demographic categories would report differences in use, ease of use, and usefulness of systems such as Blackboard, in this study, we found relatively few differences. We conclude by reviewing implications for educators.

V. MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL COGNITION

Understanding Values in Organizations: A Value-Dynamics Perspective   - Page 352
George W. Watson, Bruce T. Teague, Steven D. Papamarcos

The objective of this paper is to augment the business values literature by building upon research that claims individual value frames are subject to hierarchical rescaling, value redefinition, and value removal or induction. In contrast to the person-organization cultural fit approach of value-congruence, we postulate that the cognitive discomforts resulting from just-world needs, self-identity completion and self-concept maintenance, as moderated by contextual and dispositional variables, are resolved through the selection and accentuation of legitimating and justifying values that ultimately cast the nature of the world as fair, complete central self-identities, and affirm the self. Research and practical implications are discussed.

Self-Managed Work Team Effectiveness: The Role of Goal Orientation and Encouraging Supervisory Behaviors   - Page 365
Charles M. Carson, Don C. Mosley, Jr., Scott L. Boyar

This paper explores the role of individual goal orientation on the self-management work process and how individual goal orientation may impact self-managed work team effectiveness. Supervisory encouragement, team member goal orientation, and work team behaviors are included in a conceptual model of work team effectiveness. Propositions addressing the relationships between goal orientation, encouraging supervisory behaviors, and self-managed work team effectiveness are offered and practical implications addressing the usage of goal orientation as a selection tool for self-managed work teams and the need for external supervisors to encourage certain work team behaviors to promote work team effectiveness are discussed.

VI. ORGANIZATION THEORY / ORGANIZATION CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT

A Lateral Structural Equation Model of Buyer — Supplier Alliances   - Page 379
Curt B. Moore

Increasingly, suppliers are forming relationships with customers who are key accounts because they are highly dependent on these customers and customer knowledge is a distinct advantage. Thus, organizations that are highly dependent upon their customers must organize around the customer. This paper attempts to develop insights into what organizational characteristics relate to competitive advantage for a firm with buyer-supplier relationships. The paper explores a specific organizational structure, namely the front-back organization, and buyer-supplier relationships in order to develop a model of competitive advantage and strategic value of the interorganizational relationship. It is argued that the interorganizational relationship must create strategic value for the customer/buyer, in addition to providing a competitive advantage. This relationship is a function of the supplier’s organizational structure and interorganizational relational factors. The management literature on lateral organizational structures will be reviewed first. Following the section on lateral organizational structures, the marketing literature on buyer-supplier relationships will be reviewed. Finally, a model will be developed based on these literatures.

Inter-Organizational Tacit Knowledge Transfer: The Evolution of the No-Kill Shelter Movement – An Exploratory Study   - Page 386
Paul Harvey, William P. Anthony

The concepts of organizational knowledge creation and transfer are discussed in relation to organizations that are members of social movements. Relevant prior research and theory is reviewed and related to the no-kill animal shelter movement. As part of an ongoing study of this movement, preliminary research is reported which suggests that, unlike for-profit organizations, social movement participants stand to gain by sharing their tacit knowledge. It is argued that the existence of a central organization with the means to create large amounts of tacit knowledge can increase the quality of strategic decision-making by all related organizations. For this to occur, however, the tacit knowledge must be transformed into explicit knowledge and communicated to other organizations. A model for this process is outlined and resulting propositions for future study are discussed.

Status as a Corporate Asset in Cultural Industries   - Page 397
Karen D.W. Patterson, Dara Szyliowicz

This paper discusses the impact of social status and prestige on mergers and acquisitions in cultural industries. The authors present support from several viewpoints regarding how social status and prestige affect the interaction and desirability of organizations. Propositions about the effects of social status on organizations are presented with supporting examples from the high fashion industry. A discussion of the benefits of prestigious social status in cultural industries is presented along with directions for future research. The examination builds on previous status research and presents new viewpoints specific to cultural industries.

VII. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Perceptions of Politics as a Mediator Between Procedural Justice and Individual Level Outcomes   - Page 406
M. Todd Royle, Ken Harris

This study is a systematic extension of prior research on the relationship between procedural justice and selected individual level outcomes. However, the novel contribution that this paper attempts to make to the literature is showing that the relationship between procedural justice and the outcome variables of job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, strain, role conflict and intentions to turnover are mediated by perceptions of organizational politics. We investigated these hypotheses in an organizational sample of 418 employees from a water management district. Results found that POPS fully mediated three of the five procedural justice-outcomes relationships, and partially mediated the other two. Strengths, limitations, directions for future research, and practical implications are discussed.

Family Structures and Organizational Types: A Proposed Model of Work-Family Conflict   - Page 421
M. S. Long James

This paper takes a look at the differences in work-family conflict across various family structural characteristics (e.g., marital status, the presence of children, and whether or not individuals are responsible for elderly/parental care) and identifies various organizational types (hierarchic systems, professional or knowledge based systems and group systems) that have the potential to moderate the relationship between family structure and conflict. It is suggested that classifying organizations into types provides a basis for theorizing about the forces at work within specified organizational clusters. Furthermore, it is posited that the influence of organizational types can change the amount of work-family conflict experienced by individuals. Insight into an interactional relationship between family structure and organizational types may aid individuals in selecting jobs and careers with organizations that best complement their family structure as well as aid businesses in developing policies and procedure that will reduce work-family conflict and the negative job outcomes that result from it.

An Application of the Service Recovery Concept to the Practice of Management   - Page 433
Donald Baack, Kenneth E. Clow, Jerry D. Rogers

This exploratory study examines applications of the concepts of service failure and service recovery, taken from the marketing literature, to the field of management. Data collected from a citizen survey indicate that the service recovery efforts of promptness, courtesy, effort, and professionalism account for improvements in satisfaction with the city’s services and the City Manager. Implications for management theory and practice are then drawn.

An Analysis of Meyer and Allen’s Continuance Commitment Construct Using Edwards’ (2001) Multidimensional
Modeling Method   - Page 442
Stephen J. Jaros, Robert A. Culpepper

Researchers have disagreed recurrently over the last fifteen years concerning the nature of continuance commitment, as developed within the Meyer and Allen paradigm. The core issue is whether continuance commitment is properly construed as a uni- or- multi-dimensional construct. To address this, we examined whether the CCS “low alternatives” subscale reflects an aspect of continuance commitment or whether it actually taps a construct known as “perceived employment alternatives.” Edward’s (2001) analytical strategy was used to empirically examine models specifying CCS low alternatives, CCS high sacrifice components, and PEA items as possible dimensions of superordinate, aggregate, and multivariate-structural multidimensional constructs. CFA and SEM analysis suggested that (1) continuance commitment is not a multidimensional construct, (2) that the “high sacrifices” subscale alone taps continuance commitment, and (3) the CCS “low alternatives” subscale measures neither continuance commitment nor perceived job alternatives. Implications for further exploration of the continuance commitment construct are discussed.

Person-Job Fit, Meaningful Work and Employee Intentions to Leave   - Page 459
Wesley A. Scroggins

Meaningful work has become an increasingly valued job outcome for many employees. However, meaningful work has received little attention in the management and organizational behavior research literatures. In this study, antecedents and consequences of meaningful work are examined. A particular type of person-job fit, self-concept-job fit, is proposed and found to be a significant predictor of meaningful work. Meaningful work is also found to be significantly correlated with intentions to exit the organization and employee job performance. Results indicate that meaningful work is as strongly related to intentions to leave as are the more traditional job attitudes included in models of employee turnover. This study provides evidence for the need to expand the person-job fit construct. It provides insight into the antecedents and consequences of meaningful work and provides empirical support for existing theory.

The Distortion of Effort Self-Perceptions and the Predictive Ability of Self-Efficacy in a Highly Complex, Uncertain Task   - Page 471
Megan Lee Endres

The relationship between self-efficacy and effort in a complex task is analyzed when using two methods of measuring effort—as time spent on the task and as a self-perception. A reanalysis of past data combined with additional study data reveals that self-efficacy positively predicts self-perceived effort, but not timed effort. It is concluded that time spent on a task may not be a useful measure of effort in a highly complex, uncertain task in which more time does not necessarily lead to higher performance. Future research is suggested and implications for management are discussed.

Outcome Expectancy in a United States Air Force (USAF) System Program Office (SPO): A Case Study   - Page 482
Donald V. Drew

How one motivates individuals and their collective teams to achieve high levels of performance has been the subject of extensive academic and managerial inquiry. From this quest has come numerous theories, one of which is Expectancy Theory, which proposes that the strength of a tendency to behave in a certain manner depends on the strength of an expectation that the action will result in a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. First identified by Victor Vroom (1964), the focus of Expectancy Theory is on three distinct links, effort to performance, performance to reward, and reward to personal goals. Each of these is explored herein and will be further defined. At the core of Vroom’s theory is the belief that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives made by individuals in order to maximize pleasure or minimize pain. The theory suggests that individuals consider various outcomes associated with differing levels of performance, and choose the appropriate level of effort necessary to achieve the desired level of reward. This study focuses on a particular segment of the aerospace industry where complex organizational structures, relying on Integrated Product Teams (IPTs), are being called on for enhanced performance and increased output due to economic imperatives.

Impact of Workplace Isolation on Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intentions of Virtual
Office Employees   - Page 497
Jay Prakash Mulki, Fernando Jaramillo

Technological innovations, social and economic conditions are propelling the growth of telecommuting and virtual offices. Organizations see virtual office arrangements as a mutually beneficial arrangement that allows employees to balance work and family needs while enabling the firms to effectively leverage human resources, maintain competitive presence, reduce costs, and enhance productivity of customer interactions. This research proposes a model to investigate workplace isolation from the company (WISC) on job attitudes and employee’s behavioral intentions. Results indicate that employee’s perceptions of how secluded they are from the organizational network has a negative effect on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are negatively related to turnover intentions. Managerial implications and directions for research are provided.

Exploring Servant Leadership: Antecedents and Consequences   - Page 504
John James Cater

This study examines the concept of servant leadership, explaining the origin of the term and defining it in the context of organizations. During this process, I will compare and contrast servant leadership to transactional leadership and to transformational leadership. Additionally, this paper will study the personal values necessary for the implementation of servant leadership and the relevant outcomes in organizational settings, including follower trust, and firm performance.

VIII. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS / HEALTHCARE MANAGEMENT / OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Change Issues and Implementation Practices for Micro-Business Service Organizations   - Page 513
Esther R. Thomas, Janice A. Black

Change research is very popular but most is done on large organizations, decontextualized, and/or made into discrete episodes. Addressing these issues, a case study of the change catalysts and responses of a micro-business’ entrepreneurs is presented. To incorporate the unfolding and contextualization of these events, a narrative research methodology is used. The results indicate that many of the same features found in change efforts of large organizations exist in the stories of the micro-business entrepreneurs. This paper’s narrative study of organizational change makes valuable contributions to both micro-business research and research using a storytelling approach.

Adapting Healthcare Work to Pervasive Information Systems   - Page 526
Brett J. L. Landry, Sathi Mahesh, Sandra Hartman

New information technologies place data on integrated information systems, and provide access via pervasive computing technologies. Pervasive computing puts computing power in the hands of all employees, available wherever it is needed. Integrated systems offer seamless data and process integration over diverse information systems. These technologies offer support for a collaboration intensive workplace that is not geographically constrained. The true value of these technologies is achieved when employees adapt their work practices to this environment. Health care organizations need to develop strategies that will support their key players in this adaptation. This paper considers the impact of these technologies on the health care jobs of the future.

Scientifically Managing Healthcare Resources in a Management Friendly Way   - Page 532
Lee Revere, Ralph M. Roberts

Optimal management of resources is a very complex and difficult task for healthcare systems. However, healthcare providers can employ data-driven methodologies and management science tools, coupled with managerial insights, to significantly improve both their resource effectiveness and efficiency. Understanding the full technical complexities of management science models is a daunting task for health care managers, but they can be aided by the increased availability of management science software. Readily available software does not require extensive technical competencies and is easily adaptable to resource changes. This paper reports how a large healthcare system improved the cost effectiveness and service efficiency of its laboratory courier service through the use of management science techniques and readily available software (QSB 3.0, QM for Windows V.2.0, Microsoft Project, and Microsoft Excel). The laboratory courier system existed to serve a large multi-hospital healthcare system located in a major Texas metropolis. The routing and scheduling solution reported in this paper yielded a very substantial 16.4 percent reduction in annual laboratory courier costs and a significant improvement in service levels. This study indicates that management science techniques and software are very useful and readily adaptable to the health care environment and are amenable to use by health care administrators.

Integrating Patient Feedback into the Continuous Improvement Process in Hospitals: A Tale of Three Hospitals   - Page 540
Victor E. Sower, Jo Ann Duffy, Gerald Kohers

The hospital industry is under extreme pressure to increase quality and decrease costs. Most hospitals have implemented continuous quality improvement (CQI) programs to address these issues. A key aspect of CQI programs is outcome assessment. This paper describes three hospital’s approaches to CQI and then analyzes how they integrate assessment using the KQCAH instrument into their planning process. An adaptation of the ISO 9000 quality system maturity classification framework, the HQSM, is introduced which is particularly applicable to hospitals. The three hospitals CQI program results are used to illustrate how the effectiveness of hospital CQI programs can be analyzed in terms of maturity level.

Attrition in Nursing Perspectives from the National Survey of College Graduates   - Page 549
Sandra J. Hartman, Stephen M. Crow, Steven A. Smith, Rand Henke

Problems with attracting and retaining nurses during a tight labor market are compounded by some fundamental issues related to attrition from the field. It is important to recognize that of the students who graduate from nursing schools each year and enter the field of nursing, significant attrition occurs during the first 5 years in the profession. [1] This paper uses data from the National Science Foundation’s National Survey of College Graduates [2] to examine various scenarios and possible reasons for why some nurses abandon their careers. In doing so, we consider entry into, and attrition from, the nursing profession at various stages. Using data from the National Survey of College Graduates (NSCG), the initial evaluation suggests that at points during the career, the individual confronts potential problems and issues that can lead to career attrition.

A Comparison of Customer Relationships Management Systems and Quality Management in the U.S. and Jamaica   - Page 557
Jing Li, Wing Fok, Sandra J. Hartman, Lillian Y. Fok

This paper concerns the extent to which cultural differences may affect the way in which organizations respond to changes in workplace. We consider whether there are differences in the perceptions of managers from the U.S. vs. Jamaica in reporting their experiences with QM Maturity, the extent of use and effectiveness of Customer Relationship Management System, their organizations’ cultures, and organizational outcomes.

A Model for Virtual Collaboration   - Page 564
Gary A. Baker

Globalization and the changing structures of organizations have created work groups that are distributed across space (different sites) and time. Collaboration among workers is vital to both ongoing organizational activities and project-based activities. As organizations compete, effective communication is often seen as an important factor contributing to the success of individuals, project teams, and organizational growth. Improved connectivity together with the increase in groups and teams has resulted in increased interest in extending the usefulness of IT at the individual level to support the issues faced by virtual teams. This research presents a research model used as the basis for studying the impact of different collaborative technologies on the effectiveness of virtual teams.

Hospital CEO Succession Research: Developing an Empirical Study   - Page 571
Donna Malvey, Eileen Hamby, Myron D. Fottler

Hospital CEO succession has not been well studied. Most of the literature is qualitative and anecdotal, thereby providing us with little useful and reliable information about the topic. The topic of CEO succession planning in hospitals is critical. Hospitals are under enormous pressures, both financial and technological. The wrong CEO at the helm can mean that the hospital goes off course, which can be costly and add to already burdensome financial problems. The paper looks at the topic and suggests how researchers might develop an empirical study to examine the key issues.

IX. PUBLIC AND NON-PROFIT

Balancing Differentiation and Isomorphism: Examining Alternative Theories for Studying Political Risk   - Page 576
Franz T. Lohrke, Gina W. Simpson, David M. Hunt,

To suggest future directions for political risk (PR) research, we first review extant research with particular focus on an MNE’s bargaining power. Next, we examine “PR as balance” employing the resource-based view of the firm and institutionalization theory to examine differentiation and conformity issues, respectively. We then apply these issues to a historical case study of a company operating successfully in a situation having high PR. Examining the actions of this company’s managers provides not only an interesting historical account of one firm’s PR issues, it provides an opportunity to examine “PR as balance.”

Decline and Fall or Renewal a Consulting Foray in a Prestigious Country Club Estate   - Page 588
Stephen M. Crow, Sandra J. Hartman

This paper involves a consulting experience in an upscale gated community and a country club. The organization has a long record of successful operation but, in recent years, has fallen into decline. This paper analyzes a broad range of factors which appear to be contributing to the decline and the organization's apparent inability, despite recommendations by the consultants, to make needed changes in direction. We find a number of correspondences with the literature on decline and give emphasis to the need to find ways to overcome problems with the organization's culture which appear to be leading to resistance to change. We suggest a number of possible approaches to problems of this sort.

X. TECHNOLOGY / INNOVATION MANAGEMENT

Disconnect between Theory and Practice in the Management of Innovation Towards the Model-Based Methodology
for the Study of Engaged Scholarship   - Page 601
Darius Mahdjoubi, Andrew Van de Ven

This paper discusses the gap between theory and practice in the management of innovation and proposes the Model-Based Methodology for the study of “engaged scholarship”. Connecting theory with practice has been a declared goal of many research institutes for a long time. There exist, however, a big gap between theory and the realm of practice. This gap may be traced to the point that the main goal of many “theory building” activities may not be to seek and explain multifaceted propositions applicable to the complex nature of reality or real phenomena. Applying the Diamond Model for Professional Science, this paper suggests the Model-Based Methodology with four bases: Phenomena, Model, Theory and Application. “Engaged scholarship”, accordingly, may include the following ingredients: Design the project to address a real issue and to be a learning community. Design the study for an extended duration of time and employ multiple methods. Transform questions of consulting into learning.

A Proposed Investigation of the Success behind Knowledge Sharing in a Complex Software Development Environment   - Page 606
Megan Lee Endres, Steven P. Endres, Sanjib K. Chowhdury

Individual sharing of complex, tacit knowledge can be a key competitive advantage based on the resource-based theory of the firm. A study is proposed to investigate the effect of organizational context on knowledge sharing, and if self-efficacy perceptions mediate this relationship.

Trends in Store Automation   - Page 612
Hongwei Du

Store Automation is revolutionizing the consumer shopping experience and the way companies do business. Store Automation Solutions are helping businesses compete now and in the future. Automation solutions are designed to improve selling productivity and checkout processes and increase service levels provided to customers. Put simply, Store Automation technology improves customer interactions and transactions by providing the ability to capture, analyze and take action on this information, gained from virtual and/or physical channels, to enhance consumer relationships and to increase profitability and sales. The technology lets us do something that we have never been able to do before. The paper also focuses on how to use this new capability to create values for consumers from marketing insight and its Relevance in the business world today.

Demographics, Entrepreneurial Drivers, and Learning Experiences – Exploring the Differences Between Retail/Service and Manufacture Entrepreneurs   - Page 623
Chyi-lyi (Kathleen) Liang, Paul Dunn

An on-going national study indicated the entrepreneurial learning occurred anywhere before, in the process, and after the new venture creation. This article summarized preliminary findings corresponding to 135 Retail/Service entrepreneurs and 137 Manufacture entrepreneurs to explore differences in their demographics, entrepreneurial drivers, expectations, realization, and learning experiences. Several variables in personal and business demographics showed significant differences between Retail/Service and Manufacture entrepreneurs. More Retail/Service businesses expected more significant improvement in personal life, family life, and financial situation compared with Manufacture entrepreneurs. Unfortunately more Retail/Service entrepreneurs also realized that their expectations were not met after starting/running the businesses. The consequences of the challenges led fewer Retail/Service entrepreneurs to be willing to start new ventures again as the results of the learning experiences. The findings would add more knowledge in studying entrepreneurship by implementing traditional theories and examining entrepreneurial behaviors from multiple dimensions.

Proceedings Editor: Darla Domke-Damonte, Coastal Carolina University       SWAM Homepage